A recent meta-analysis based on 21 studies with an international sample of 363,539 children and adolescents examined the association between peer victimization and sleep problems. A broader focus on peer victimization was used due to definitional issues associated with bullying. The authors defined peer victimization as “being the victim of relational, verbal, or physical aggression from peers” (van Geel et al., 2015, p. 89). Children and adolescents who experienced experienced more sleep problems than children who did not report victimization (OR = 2.21.95% CI [2.01, 2.44]). In addition, the relationship between peer victimization and sleep problems was stronger in young children than in older children (van Geel et al., 2015). This study was based on cross-sectional studies that differed greatly in operationalizing peer victimization and sleep problems and therefore cannot report causal relationships between peer victimization and sleep problems. Bystanders reported feelings of fear and insecurity (Rigby & Slee, 1993), which were partly due to fear of reprisal (Musher-Eizenman et al., 2004) and often prevented bystanders from seeking help (Unnever & Cornell, 2003). In a study examining the effects of bullying on the mental health of students who witness it, Rivers and colleagues (2009) surveyed 2,002 students aged 12 to 16 who attended 14 schools in the United Kingdom, using a questionnaire that included interventions for school bullying, substance abuse, and mental health risks. They found that bullying predicted a significant increase in mental health risks, even after controlling for the effect of an abuser or victim (range = 0.07 to 0.15). They also found that one bully witness predicted high levels (= 0.06) of substance use. Rivers and Noret (2013) found that, compared to students who were not involved in bullying, those who observed bullying reported more symptoms of interpersonal sensitivity (e.g., feeling hurt or inferior), helplessness, and potential suicidal thoughts. ACCEPT.
Talk to teens about their “digital footprint” and the fact that what`s online stays online. Make sure that any information they share online (photos, videos, emails, SMS, etc.) can be easily shared, copied, and pasted elsewhere without their knowledge or permission. There is also evidence of gender differences in the physical effects of bullying. For example, Kowalski and Limber (2013) examined the association between experiences of cyberbullying, or traditional bullying (i.e., bullying that does not use digital electronic communications) and mental and physical health, as well as the academic achievement of 931 students in grades 6 to 12 living in rural Pennsylvania. Students were asked how many times they had had 10 physical health symptoms in the past 4 weeks, with scores for these 10 symptoms averaged to get an overall health index (higher scores mean more health problems). Traditional bullying has been defined as “aggressive acts intended to hurt another person that occur repeatedly and involve an imbalance of power” (Kowalski & Limber, 2013, p. 15). The authors found that girls who were traditionally bullied reported more anxiety and general health problems than boys who were bullied (women: M = 1.65, SD = 0.41; Men: M = 1.42, SD = 0.38). One limitation of this study is that it is correlated in nature and the authors cannot conclude that the victim of traditional bullying caused the psychological or physical problems.
Being a child or adolescent being bullied changes behaviours, and neuroscience research suggests that this experience can also alter the brain (Bradshaw et al., 2012; Vaillancourt et al., 2013a). The main technique for monitoring brain function in humans is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which monitors blood flow to indirectly assess the function of thousands of brain cells in an area of the brain. This technique has rarely been applied to the perpetrator or target of a bullying incident during this very specific social interaction, and for this reason, little is known about whether the brain of a child who bullies or a child who has been bullied is different or altered by these experiences. These very specific studies are needed before definitive statements can be made about the brain for this topic, or how this information might help develop new interventions or prevention. Although a person`s DNA is fixed (i.e. non-malleable) at conception, the environment can have a powerful impact on how certain genes are used at each stage of development. One way in which such changes in gene use and expression can occur is an epigenetic effect, in which environmental events alter the parts of the genome that control when genus plication is turned on or off and which parts of a gene are transcribed (McGowan et al., 2009; Roth, 2014). That is, although an individual`s genetic information is crucial, the environment can help increase or decrease the use of certain genetic information by indirectly turning certain genes on or off, depending on the inputs received from somatic cells in the environment. Such epigenetic changes have been empirically validated in several animal studies. For example, in a number of epigenetic studies, young rat puppies are raised either with mothers with little or no care, or with mothers who have treated the puppies harshly. Researchers found that the type of maternal care in early childhood had a remarkable impact on the rats` later ability to cope with stress (McGowan et al., 2011; Roth and Sweatt, 2011; Weaver et al., 2004).
Behavioral effects correlated with changes in DNA methylation.23 Epigenetic changes associated with gene-environment interactions are a new and exciting area of research that makes a direct link between how our genes are read and that would allow us to pass on our experiences to future generations. It is useful to think of genes as books in a library and epigenetics as a barrier in front of a book to reduce the likelihood of it being read or to allow easy access to the book. So far, research has shown that certain epigenetic mechanisms are strongly correlated with various neurobehavioral developmental trajectories, including changes in susceptibility and resistance to psychopathology. How epigenetics relates to individual responses to being the target or perpetrator of bullying is unclear, but research in related behavioural domains highlights an emerging area important to the investigation. In summary, a number of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies support a link between bullying and an increased risk of poor academic performance. However, given the conflicting results of longitudinal studies, further research in this area is warranted to better determine the relationship between bullying and academic achievement over time. What are the strategies to amplify messages of kindness, acceptance and inclusion at a young age? Positive adult role models, mentorship and age-appropriate approaches to kindness, acceptance and inclusion can have a huge impact on how children interact with each other in the classroom, in the playground, at home and in the community. Young children learn what it means to get along, how to share toys, discover ways to work together, and understand how their feelings and behaviors affect others. Practice role-playing, play games, create art, explore feelings, and establish clear rules of behavior. These strategies reinforce positive relationships and behaviours and are one of the keys to helping children get along, which can ultimately help prevent bullying.
